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EVAGRIUS, PSEUDO-DIONYSIUS AND MAXIMUS According to Bouyer, "Evagrius is one of the most important names in the history of spirituality, one of those that not only marked a decisive turning-point, but called forth a real spiritual mutation."(36) Greatly influenced by the teachings of Origen, Evagrius Ponticus (+399) developed a theology of the spiritual life which affected many subsequent writers, and especially Cassian. However, Evagrius does not escape criticism on the grounds that he was too much of a philosopher. He was condemned, together with Origen, by the Council of Constantinople (553) and by three subsequent councils. In modern times Hans Urs von Balthasar has stated: "There is no doubt that the mysticism of Evagrius, carried to the strict conclusions of its premises,air max 95 online comes closer, by its essence, to Buddhism than to Christianity. "(37) Evagrius attempted to synthesize the doctrine of the spiritual life in treatises that would be of particular benefit to monks. The Practicos (PG 40, 1221-1252) contains the ascetical teaching of Evagrius; the Gnosticos,(38)a continuation of the previous work, is a compilation of practical counsels and precautions; his masterpiece, Kephalaia gnostica, was published under the editorship of A. Guillaumont at Paris in 1958.(39) Of the other works attributed to Evagrius we mention only a treatise on the cenobitic life and another directed to nuns,(40) discussions of evil thoughts and the eight spirits of malice,(41) and a work on prayer.(42) The positive contributions made by Evagrius can be summarized as follows: he defined the stages of growth in the spiritual life;(43) he tried to show the interconnection of the virtues, beginning with faith and terminating with charity; he expounded a theology of prayer that reaches its perfection in "mystical theology" or gnosis of the Trinity; he enumerated and commented on the eight capital sins;air jordan 13 cheap and he attempted to refine the stoical doctrine of apatheia by relating it to charity. With pseudo-Dionysius it is "surprising to see apatheia, the importance of which from Clement to Evagrius was always being explained and affirmed, here disappearing, or almost so; while gnosis, if it has not disappeared, is at least considerably less emphasized."(44) Yet, the pseudo-Areopagite is truly in the mainstream of the Cappadocian school, although he also represents an advance in the theology of the spiritual life, particularly in his treatment of the three stages, his distinction between theology as a science and theology as mysticism, and his explanation of mystical contemplation. It would be difficult to overemphasize his importance in spiritual theology, especially as an influence on the medieval theologians. His impact was much greater in the West than in the East. It is generally admitted that the works of the pseudo-Dionysius were composed toward the end of the fifth century or early in the sixth century. There is also common agreement on the authentic works that constitute the corpus dionysiacum: De divinis nominibus, Theologia mystica, De caelesti hierarchia, and De ecclesiastica hierarchia. As the title indicates, the first work is an explanation of the various names attributed to God, both in Sacred Scripture and by the philosophers. Theologia mystica treats of the divine darkness and the necessity of total detachment in order to be united with God and then, after explaining the difference between positive theology and negative theology, shows why the transcendental is not contained in any sensate form or intellectual concept. The last two works are treatises on the hierarchy of angels and on the sacraments respectively.(45) It has been said that pseudo-Dionysius was the originator of the division of the "three ways" or "three stages" of the spiritual life. However, except for a passage in De caelesti hierarchia, where the catechumens, the ordinary faithful and the monks represent three stages of progress toward perfection, pseudo-Dionysius does not apply the concept of ways or stages to the individual Christian. Rather, he is speaking of the ways in which men or angels participate in the divine perfections; therefore it is in this context that one should understand the expressions "purification, illumination and perfection." Thus, in De caelesti hierarchia, various choirs of angels perform the functions of purification, illumination and perfection; in De ecclesiastica hierarchia, on the other hand, these same functions are performed by the liturgy, the clergy and the faithful. Liturgically, baptism is the sacrament of purification; the Eucharist is the sacrament of illumination; chrismation (confirmation) is the sacrament that perfects the graces of baptism. Applying the same terms to the clergy, the ministers or deacons perform the function of purifying, the priests illumine, and the bishops perfect the work by the ministry of the word and the liturgy.